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Below is a summary of eruption dates and Volcanic Explosivity Indices (VEI).

The following references are the sources used for data regarding this volcano. References are linked directly to our volcano data file. Discussion of another volcano or eruption (sometimes far from the one that is the subject of the manuscript) may produce a citation that is not at all apparent from the title. Additional discussion of data sources can be found under Volcano Data Criteria.

Effendi A C, 1976. Geologic map of the Manado quadrangle, north Sulawesi. {Volc Surv Indonesia}, geol map

Neumann van Padang M, 1951. Indonesia. {Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World and Solfatara Fields}, Rome: IAVCEI, 1: 1-271

Newhall C G, Dzurisin D, 1988. Historical unrest at large calderas of the world. {U S Geol Surv Bull}, 1855: 1108 p, 2 vol

Tondano is an approximately 20 x 30 km Quaternary caldera in north Sulawesi containing post-caldera pyroclastic cones, obsidian flows, and thermal areas. Lake Tondano lies against the well-defined eastern caldera rim. The historically active andesitic-to-basaltic stratovolcanoes Soputan, Sempu, Lokon-Empung and Mahawu (described elsewhere in this compilation) lie astride the poorly defined southern and northern rims of the caldera. The age of the latest eruptions within the caldera is not known, although thermal areas occur at Batu Kolok and Sarangson, and at the Tampusu cinder cone and Lahendong maar.